US Census and American Community Survey

The way the U.S. Census has measured and categorized race and ethnicity has evolved dramatically over time—reflecting shifts in politics, social movements, and cultural understanding. From the first enumeration in 1790, when the categories were simply “Free White males,” “Free White females,” “All other free persons,” and “Slaves,” to today’s more expansive and self-identified categories, the census has always been a political and social mirror as much as a statistical tool.

A key turning point came in 1960, when respondents were allowed to self-identify their race for the first time. The 2000 Census introduced the option to select more than one race, acknowledging multiracial identities. And in 2020, additional detail was encouraged with write-in boxes for racial and ethnic origins like “Jamaican,” “German,” or “Haitian” under broader racial categories. Despite these advances, critiques persist—particularly about the binary separation of “race” and “Hispanic origin,” and the limited recognition of Indigenous, Middle Eastern, and North African identities.

You can explore how these categories have changed using the Census Bureau’s interactive visualization, Decennial Census Measurement of Race and Ethnicity Across the Decades: 1790–2020. It illustrates not only the expansion of options but also the shifting logic behind them.

The headings of the 1790 Census Schedule [source]

Citizenship and Japanese American Internment

The forced internment of over 120,000 Japanese Americans during World War II—two-thirds of whom were U.S. citizens—raises enduring questions about the limits of citizenship and the role of government data in civil rights violations. Under Executive Order 9066, entire communities were removed from the West Coast and placed in incarceration camps, often based on race rather than proven threat. 

Manzanar Relocation Center from tower / photograph by Ansel Adams [source]

While the U.S. Census Bureau has long emphasized confidentiality, scholarship suggests that aggregate data from the 1940 Census may have been shared with wartime agencies to help identify neighborhoods with large Japanese American populations (Seltzer & Anderson, 2000). This breach of trust underscores the tension between national security and individual rights. As documented by the National Archives and later acknowledged by the Census Bureau, the internment represents a critical moment in the history of government surveillance and a cautionary tale for how data—especially about citizenship and identity—can be misused during times of fear and crisis.

Native Americans and Historic Undercounts in the U.S. Census

Native Americans have long been among the most persistently undercounted populations in the U.S. Census. This undercount is rooted in a complex history of erasure, mistrust, and geographic isolation. Early censuses often failed to include Native peoples at all, or only counted those living off-reservation or assimilated into non-Native communities. Even in modern censuses, factors such as nontraditional housing, rural or remote reservation locations, and historical mistrust of federal institutions have contributed to significant underrepresentation. 

Taking the census at Standing Rock Agency - South Dakota [source]

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the 2010 Census undercounted American Indians and Alaska Natives living on reservations by an estimated 4.9%. This chronic undercount has tangible consequences: it can distort political representation, misallocate federal funding, and limit the visibility of Native issues in public policy. Efforts to address these disparities have included tribal liaison programs, culturally specific outreach, and expanded data categories, but challenges persist—highlighting the need for continued investment in equitable enumeration practices.

Queering the Census: Advocating for LGBTQ+ Inclusion

The "Queer the Census" initiative, spearheaded by the National LGBTQ Task Force, aims to ensure comprehensive representation of LGBTQ+ individuals in U.S. Census data. Recognizing that the Census has historically undercounted LGBTQ+ communities—particularly single individuals, transgender, and nonbinary people—the campaign emphasizes the importance of being counted to secure equitable access to federal funding, political representation, and civil rights protections.​

In the 2020 Census, while data collection included information on same-sex households, it did not encompass questions about sexual orientation or gender identity. This limitation means that many LGBTQ+ individuals remain statistically invisible in federal data. To address this, the "Queer the Census" campaign mobilized efforts  to educate and encourage LGBTQ+ participation. ​

Advocates argue that accurate data collection is crucial for addressing disparities in areas like healthcare, housing, and employment, where LGBTQ+ individuals often face systemic challenges. By pushing for the inclusion of sexual orientation and gender identity questions in future Census iterations, the campaign seeks to ensure that LGBTQ+ communities are recognized and their needs adequately met.