UWM Libraries Research and Course Guides: WInSTEP Environmental Health Science Program: Fathead Minnows

Student Resources

Click on the following links for more handy resources:

Integrating Physiology and Behavior: Using Fathead Minnows to Model the Effects of Environmental Agents

Module: Fathead Minnows - Integrating Physiology and Behavior

This module investigates the effect of lead on fathead minnow reproductive behaviors. Students learn about normal breeding behaviors and how changes in these behaviors are related to changes in fish physiology due to exposure to lead. Students then connect how the fathead minnow is a model of human environmental health.

(Photo: U.S. Geological Society)

Parent/Guardian Letter for the Fathead Minnow Module
This letter provides a description of the fathead minnow module and the ethical use of animals in the project.
Safety Data Sheet - Lead

Virtual Experiments and Data Sheets

Each of the following videos for the fathead minnow module are grouped as a teaching video and as a virtual experiment. The teaching video is a compact version of the longer workshop video and can be used by teachers as a self-guided introduction or as a refresher, and by students to guide them through the steps and concepts in the module, if necessary.

The virtual experiment videos are based on videos from an actual scientific experiment (the published paper from this experiment can be found in the LibGuide). Methods for this experiment can be found in that paper. Because reproductive behavior is optimal within 2 hours of aquarium lights going on and observation times for each pair was 4 minutes, the 20 pairs of control and 20 pairs of Pb-exposed adult minnows were viewed once over a 3-day cycle. Therefore, each "Round" represents a 3-day segment of the 2-week observation period. There are 4 "Rounds" with each a separate video. Be sure to observe them in the proper order as this will allow the student to see the development of the behaviors over time. The virtual experiment can be used by students either in class if procurement of animals or materials is difficult or at home if the student is, for any reason, learning virtually. Students collect data by viewing the video. Sample data sheets are also provided. Note: Due to the age of the original video, some secondary sex characteristics may be difficult to distinguish.

Teaching Video: The Effects of Lead Exposure on the Reproductive Behavior of Fathead Minnows
Lead is a common contaminant in urban areas, although not solely limited to these regions. Usually, people think of lead as a neurotoxicant. However, it is also a powerful endocrine disruptor. Since reproductive behavior is governed to a large extent by changes in specific hormone levels, students will use those behaviors as a basis to understand how lead alters reproductive activity and success. This video explains the science behind the module design, including terminology, reasons for why the tank is set up in a specific manner, how to observe the behaviors and record the data, and methods of data analysis and presentation.
Round 1: Virtual Observations and Data Collection
Round 2: Virtual Observations and Data Collection
Round 3: Virtual Observations and Data Collection
Round 4: Virtual Observations and Data Collection

Data Chart for Breeding Behaviors
This chart is from the Fathead Minnow Module (pgs. 121-123) and can be used to record breeding behaviors.
Alternate FHM Reproductive Behavior Data Sheet
This data sheet is an alternative form that can be used to record reproductive behaviors of the fathead minnow.
Data Chart for Egg Deposition
Use this data chart to record each day's observations of the total number of eggs observed on each substrate (from the Fathead Minnow Module, page 124).
Embryo Development Data Sheet
Use this chart for recording data on malformations found in the minnow embryo.

Pre-Module Background and Training Videos

The following videos are useful as a tool to train both the teacher and student on the various methods and experimental set-ups used in the minnow module. Teachers can use these in the classroom to help students understand proper experimental techniques or as a refresher for the teacher. There are also a set of videos that allow students an opportunity to practice identifying the behaviors on their own before conducting the experiment on live animals or through use of the virtual experiment videos. It is strongly suggested that these be used to help the students become better observers of animal behavior. Lastly, there are videos that demonstrate the effects of either short-term (2 weeks), adult lead (Pb) or methylmercury (MeHg) exposure on fathead minnow reproductive behavior. The videos were created and copyrighted by the UWM Children's Environmental Health Sciences Center.

Identifying Fathead Minnow Reproductive Behaviors
This video segment shows what a fathead minnow male in breeding state looks like, what the differences are between the male and the female, as well as important breeding locations in the aquarium.
Fathead Minnows: Behaviors
Male Breeding Behaviors
This segment shows the male breeding behaviors of hovering, nest preparation and patrol.
Count how many times you see Nest Preparation and Hovering
Chasing and Spawning
This video explains and shows chasing and spawning.
Count how many times the fathead minnows Spawn and Hover
Lead Exposure - Control Fathead Minnows
Control minnows with dorso-ventral banding and tubercles; active near the ceiling of the breeding chamber; female inside and breeding.
Lead Exposed Fathead Minnows
Lead exposed minnows. Male has no vertical banding, small tubercles and little to no activity at the ceiling of the breeding chamber; female outside breeding chamber; male goes toward female and spends much time outside the chamber. Male swims at mid-level of chamber and intermittently checks interior ceiling of substrate.
Mercury Exposure - Control Fathead Minnows
This video segment shows a well-banded control male with tubercled face (c1), a control male in breeding substrate with a female behind the chamber (c2), and a control male and female in breeding mode (c3).
Mercury Exposed - Fathead Minnow Male and Female (1)
This segment shows a mercury exposed male with poor banding and undeveloped tubercles, as well as a female with a long dark lateral line. Activity is diminshed compared to control.
Mercury Exposed - Fathead Minnow Male and Female (2)
The minnows in this segment are physically similar to those in the "Mercury Exposed - Fathead Minnow Male and Female (1)," notice the minnows spend a lot of time outside of the breeding substrate.

Fathead Minnow - Reproductive Behavior and Background Information

Key literature resources and website links about fathead minnows and reproductive behavior in general:

Effects of Toxicants on Fathead Minnow Reproductive Behavior

Key literature resources and website links about the effects of toxicants on fathead minnow reproductive behavior:

Effects of Dietary Methylmercury on Reproductive Behavior of Fathead Minnows
Endocrine Disruption
Chemicals that disrupt hormone function can have substantial and sometimes permanent impacts on health. Due to the nature of the body's endocrine system, effects can occur from very little exposure, particularly if it occurs before birth or during early life.
Endocrine Disruption Infographics and Fact Sheets
A picture says a thousand words. That’s why TEDX partnered with several nonprofits and a team of science advisors to reduce complex scientific concepts into simple, accurate, compelling illustrations. Whether you’re an advocate talking to a policy maker, a professor teaching endocrine disruption, or a person concerned about your friends and family, our new infographics are designed to help you.
Exposure to Sublethal Levels of Waterborne Lead Alters Reproductive Behavior Patterns in Fathead Minnows
Human Drugs Make Fish Flounder
Article in Nature describing how contraceptives and antidepressants can reduce fish reaction times and reproductive rates.
Lead Effects on the Predictability of Reproductive Behavior in Fathead Minnows: A Mathematical Model
Lead Reduces Messenger RNA and Protein Levels of Cytochrome P450 Aromatase and Estrogen Receptor B in Human Ovarian Granulosa Cells
Lead Toxicity and the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Testicular Axis
Role of Early GnRH Administration in Sexual Behavior Disorders of Rat Pups Perinatally Exposed to Lead

Toxicants and the Environment

Key literature resources and website links about toxicants and the environment:

Webinar Series: Generation Chemical: How Environmental Exposures are Affecting Reproductive Health and Development
A seven-part series examines the effects of harmful chemicals and pollutants on male and female reproductive systems, as well as on child development, reproductive justice, interventions, and policy implications.
Great Lakes Environmental Database (GLENDA) - EPA
The US EPA Great Lakes National Program Office collects environmental data on a wide variety of constituents in water, biota, sediment, and air.
The History of Lead
Series of four articles on the history of lead, from Dr. Winder's book, "The Developmental Neurotoxicity of Lead."
Former Residents of Treece, Kan., Say Goodbye to Contaminated Town
Recently, Treece, Kansas has been virtually emptied of its residents, who were given government-sponsored buyouts to move away after Treece was declared unsafe for human habitation due to lead contamination from mining.
Get the Lead Out (Video-National Park Service)
In this video, a Pinnacles National Monument Wildlife Biologist and a group of hunters compare the performance of lead and non-lead bullets. The potential impacts of lead bullet fragmentation on wildlife and humans are also discussed.
The Impact of Endocrine Disruption: A Consensus Statement on the State of the Science
An editorial in Environmental Health Perspectives that discusses the key concerns of endocrine disrupting chemicals on humans and wildlife.
Lead Element Facts
Site that details the chemistry of lead, it's discovery, uses, abundance, etc.
Lead, A Global Poison
An article that focuses on the ever-present problem of lead poisoning that still exists at the local and global levels.
Lead Poisoning: Why Some Children Are Still at High Risk and What You Can Do About It! (webinar)
Lead Poisoning in Wild Birds
Article from the USGS National Wildlife Health Center about the significant problem of lead poisoning in wild birds, such as bald and golden eagles, red-tailed hawks, and the California condor.
Lead-Safe Gardening Brochure
Plants can take up metals and other toxicants, and thus can be present in garden-grown foods and compost. Wayne State University created an informational brochure called, "Lead-Safe Gardening" that provides very helpful information about best gardening practices and why it's important.
National Report: Lead in India's Enamel Household Paints
This report provides an introduction and background to the lead paint issue, specifically focusing on India, as well as discusses the effects of exposure to children. The report also puts the issue in an international context and provides conclusions and recommendations to this significant concern.
Nonprofit Helps Artisans in Mexico Get the Lead Out
Neil Leifer spent 20 years litigating cases involving children's lead poisoning. Now he's started a nonprofit group help artisans from rural Mexico convert to lead-free glazes.
Sub-lethal Exposure to Lead is Associated with Heightened Aggression in an Urban Songbird
Many urban areas have elevated soil lead concentrations due to prior large-scale use of lead in products such as paint and automobile gasoline. This presents a potential problem for the growing numbers of wildlife living in urbanized areas as lead exposure is known to affect multiple physiological systems, including the nervous system, in vertebrate species.
Gold Rush Legacy - National Wildlife
Discusses the significant impact of using mercury during the California Gold Rush to the waters of the San Francisco Bay.
Environmental Mercury Mapping, Modeling, and Analysis (EMMMA)
From the USGS, this site looks at the toxic effects of mercury, the risks to people and wildlife, fish advisories, sources of mercury, and contamination.
Great Lakes Mercury Connections
A report documenting the impact and trends of mercury pollution on the Great Lakes region.
Mercury - EPA
This site from the US Environmental Protection Agency provides a broad range of information about mercury and the effects on people and the environment.
Mercury Contamination of Aquatic Ecosystems
Mercury and the Fish We Eat: Should I be Concerned?
This fact sheet was developed by Duke University to inform the public about what methylmercury is, where it comes from, how it gets into the fish we eat, and how it can affect human health.
Mercury: From Source to Seafood
A 10-minute video explaining how mercury gets into the seafood we eat, why it's important to eat low-mercury fish for good health, and the need to keep mercury out of the environment.
Mercury in the Great Lakes
Mercury (Hg) contamination of aquatic ecosystems is an international issue that affects literally every region of the planet. Some ecosystems, such as the Great Lakes basin, are seemingly especially prone to the problem and potentially unsafe levels of Hg are found with regularity in consumable game and commercial fish.
Mercury in Seafood
Podcast from The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences that explains why some types of fish contain high levels of mercury and how to find low-mercury seafood that is safe to eat.
Monitoring Mercury Deposition: A Key Tool to Understanding the Link between Emissions and Effects
This booklet provides information about the Mercury Deposition Network, mercury in the environment, the effects of mercury on the food chain and humans, and how mercury reaches lakes, rivers, and oceans.
Little Things Matter: The Impact of Toxins on PreTerm Birth
Babies who are born preterm -- which is 3 or more weeks before their due date -- are more likely to die in the first year of life or develop heart disease, diabetes or have trouble learning. Every year about 15 million babies are born too soon. Preterm birth, which is a key barometer for the health of a population, can be due to infection, poor nutrition, or having twins or triplets, but these only account for about one-third of babies born preterm. This video is about how widespread exposure of pregnant women to toxic chemicals can “tip the scales” and increase the number of babies born too soon.

Copper Ammo Better Than Lead
Talks about the many benefits of using copper ammo vs. lead for both human health and wildlife.
Environmental Mercury Exposure—A Continuing Challenge
The environment and human health are significantly at risk from mercury (Hg), a naturally occurring heavy metal that is also a very toxic neurotoxin.
Screening for Drugs to Reduce Aggression in Zebrafish
Aggression is a common symptom of several human psychiatric disorders. However, the drugs available to treat aggression are non-specific and can have unwanted side effects. The zebrafish is an ideal model for behavioral
pharmacology.

Lead and Mercury and Human Health

Key literature resources and website links about toxicants and human health:

Are Our Kids at Risk for Lead Poisoning?
This video can be helpful if a teacher would like to focus on teaching methods to detect Pb poisoning and ways to prevent it. You can skip the into of the speakers (start at 14:20) and end it at 52:30.
Are Our Kids at Risk for Lead Poisoning? Slides
These slides support the video with the same title.
Association Between Soil Lead and Blood Lead - Evidence
Discusses the association between urban soil lead contamination and children's blood lead poisoning.
Below the Surface: Safe Fish Consumption
This video was funded by a NIEHS Justice Grant to David Petering, PhD, Director of the National Institute of Environmental Health Science Marine and Freshwater Biomedical Sciences Center and the Institute of Environmental Health, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee.
Childhood Lead Exposure and Educational Outcomes
Issue Brief from the National Center for Healthy Housing that highlights recent research on the dangers posed by low-level lead exposure and the resulting financial and social costs.
Childhood Lead Hazard Pioneer Research Herbert Needleman, MD
A statement by Dr. Needleman, a pioneer in the history of medicine who has helped transform our understanding of the health effects of lead on children, at a Congressional hearing on controlling the hazards of lead.
Choose Wisely: A Health Guide for Eating Fish in Wisconsin
The information in this brochure describes how much fish a person can safely eat.
City of Milwaukee Properties with Lead Service Lines from Water Main to Curb Stop
Congress Should Act to Fund Removal of Aging Lead Water Pipes in Wisconsin and Elsewhere
The recent report on blood lead levels in U.S. children by the medical journal JAMA Pediatrics highlights the urgent need for congressional action on the bipartisan infrastructure bill and the Build Back Better House reconciliation package, both of which include funding for cities to remove lead water lines that threaten the health of Wisconsin’s children.
Decreased Brain Volume in Adults with Childhood Lead Exposure
Research examining the relationship between childhood lead exposure and adult brain volume using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and how volume changes correlate with historic neuropsychological assessments.
The Devastating Effects of Childhood Lead Exposure Could Last a Lifetime
Fact Sheet: Nutrients that Reduce Lead Poisoning
This fact sheet is a summary of the article "Nutrition to Fight Lead Poisoning," and provides nutritional information important to fighting lead poisoning.
Funding to Eliminate Lead Hazards, From Paint to Pipes, is in Biden's Build Back Better Bill. Here's What That Could Mean for Milwaukee
Experts contend that much more is needed to support projects that will reduce lead contamination via pipes and paint. Here's what you need to know about how the federal legislation in the proposed Build Back Better bill could affect Milwaukee's lead hazards in pipes and paint.
How Lead Exposure Relates to Temporal Changes in IQ, Violent Crime, and Unwed Pregnancy
Study that compares changes in children's blood lead levels in the U.S. with subsequent changes in IQ and long term trends in violent crime and unwed pregnancy.
HowStuffWorks Show: Lead Poisoning
Once absorbed into our bodies, lead can have devastating effects on the brain and central nervous system. Learn more about lead poisoning on this video by the Discovery Channel.
In some zip codes, 1 in 7 children suffer from dangerously high blood lead levels
In one city after another, the tests showed startling numbers of children with unsafe blood lead levels: Poughkeepsie and Syracuse and Buffalo. Erie and Reading. Cleveland and Cincinnati. In those cities and others around the country, 14 percent of kids — and in some cases more — have troubling amounts of the toxic metal in their blood.
Intimate Portraits of Flint Show Frustration, Fear, Perseverance
The water contamination crisis in Flint, Michigan has forced the city's residents to dramatically change how they live. Everyday tasks like bathing, tooth brushing, and cooking have become difficult chores as the threat of lead poisoning and other maladies looms in the tap water.
Is that Lead in Your Lipstick? FDA Tests Reveal Raised Lead Levels in U.S. Lipsticks
Recent tests by FDA scientists reveal increased lead levels in U.S. lipsticks, with two brands above California's standard 5 ppm. FDA says it is considering setting an upper limit for lead in lipsticks, but to date no such limit has been set.
Lead - EPA
This site from the EPA provides information about lead, lead exposure, and the health effects of lead.
Lead - National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS)
Helpful website that explains what lead is and how it is used, common sources of lead exposure in the US, health effects associated with lead exposure and how to prevent exposure.
Lead Contamination Dishware "tag" brand plate Lead Poison Risk
This video shows the results of a test for lead contamination of dishware.
Lead Contamination a Persistent Worry for Many Water Systems, Not Just in Flint
The lead contamination of the water supply in Flint, Michigan is not an isolated case. Dangerously high levels of lead have also been found in water supplies of other cities and towns.
Lead-Could It Be In Your Home?
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), no safe blood lead level in children has been identified and at least 4 million households in the United States have children living in them that are being exposed to high levels of lead.
Lead-Based Decorative Paints: Where Are They Still Sold - and Why?
This article in Environmental Health Perspectives addresses the significant problem of lead poisoning due to lead-based residential paint still being sold in at least 40 countries.
Lead-Laced Drinking Glasses Spur Federal Probe
Lead at Superfund Sites: Human Health (EPA)
Lead and Water (Milwaukee Water Works)
While lead is not found in Milwaukee’s treated water, lead may dissolve from lead service lines and plumbing fixtures. Structures built before 1951 may have lead service lines. The service line connects the water main in the street to the property. This resource lists residential and commercial properties that have a lead water service line from the water main to the curb stop.
Lead in Drinking Water - EPA
This site from the EPA provides a background about lead in drinking water, as well as fact sheets, local lead information, regulations, and several links related to drinking water.
Lead in Drinking Water (Wisconsin DNR)
Provides links to various topics related to lead and drinking water, including the reasons for being concerned, how lead affects human health, how people are exposed to lead, and how to reduce exposure to lead in drinking water.
Leaded Gas Was a Known Poison the Day It Was Invented
For most of the mid-twentieth century, lead gasoline was considered normal. It wasn’t: lead is a poison, and burning it had dire consequences. But how did it get into gasoline in the first place?
Lead Found in Many Purses, Bags and Wallets
Article in the San Francisco Chronicle about high lead levels found in popular accessories such as purses and wallets by the Center for Environmental Health.
Lead Poisoning and Health (WHO)
Lead in Paint
Lead safe toolkit for homes.
Lead in Paint: Webinar
Webinar hosted by Amanda Reddy, Executive Director of the National Center for Healthy Housing, discussing the dangers of lead in paint and explains steps to take to reduce lead paint exposures.
Lead in Paint, Dust, and Soil (EPA)
Lead Poisoning - Interview with a Lead Poisoning Expert
Dr. Evelyn Mauss, a leading figure in the exploration of the dangers of lead poisoning, explains how lead came to be widely used in various products, its toll on human health, and what must be done to eliminate this threat to public health.
Lead Poison Prevention for Home Renovators
Video that discusses steps for do-it-yourself home renovators should take to reduce the risk of exposure to lead while completing home renovation projects.
Lead in Soil - Webinar
Children get exposed to lead in soil by accidentally ingesting it.
The Lead-Safe Toolkit for Home-Based Child Care
This toolkit was designed to provide home-based child care providers (but is useful with any home) with resources and strategies to ensure the safety of their child care facilities. The toolkit is divided into four main categories – paint, drinking water, soil, and consumer products – plus a general resources section.
Lead-Safe Wisconsin: WI Dept. of Health Services
Lead, Unsafe at Any Level
Short article discussing lead poisoning as a global health problem, the issues surrounding lead poisoning, and the critical need to remove lead from the environment.
The Legacy of Tar Creek
In the first half of the 20th century, NE Oklahoma was mined heavily for zinc and iron ore. In the early 1990s, widespread lead poisoning was found in children due to their exposure from the closed mines.
National Lead Poisoning Prevention Week Information Kit
NLPPW highlights the many ways parents, caregivers, and communities can reduce children’s exposure to lead and prevent its serious health effects. Contains several important links to additional resources.
NIH Study Links High Levels of Cadmium, Lead in Blood to Pregnancy Delay
Higher blood levels of cadmium in females, and higher blood levels of lead in males, delayed pregnancy in couples trying to become pregnant, according to a study by researchers at NIH and other academic institutions.
Philly's Shame: City Ignores Thousands of Poisoned Kids
In Philadelphia, thousands of children, year after year, are newly poisoned by lead due to deteriorating lead paint in old homes. Lead poisoning can cause irreversible damage, including lower IQ and cause lifelong learning and behavioral problems.
Physicians group: Test for lead in schools, day care
The American Medical Association called Tuesday for routine lead testing in schools and registered day care centers in the wake of water problems in Flint that led to widespread lead exposure in children.
Resources for Concerned Consumers
Lead service lines (LSLs) are the pipe that connects homes and other buildings to the water main in the street. They are the largest source of lead in contact with drinking water. While Congress banned new installation of LSLs in 1986 due to health risks, an estimated 6-10 million homes across the nation still are served by lead pipes.
Take-Home Lead Exposure Among Children with Relatives Employed at a Battery Recycling Facility - Puerto Rico, 2011
An article from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) regarding an important concern of workers and their families being potentially exposed to lead from battery recycling facilities.
10 Policies to Prevent and Respond to Childhood Lead Exposure
Toxicological Profile for Lead
Profile for lead by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Provides toxicologic and adverse health effects of lead.
Update of the Blood Lead Reference Value — United States, 2021
CDC updated the blood lead reference value (BLRV) to 3.5 μg/dL, which provides an opportunity for additional progress in addressing longstanding disparities in lead exposure and blood lead levels in children.
The US Can’t Get Away from Lead’s Toxic Legacy
A prized industrial product since the birth of America, the heavy metal has created a costly, pervasive, and deadly mess.
Your Health: Lead at Home
With substantial media focus on the tap water, many people are concerned about lead levels in their tap water. This concern is well founded, for lead has devastating impacts on our health, and especially on children’s health. There is no amount of lead exposure that is considered safe for children—even the smallest exposures can impact health.
Acute Toxicity, Uptake and Histopathology of Aqueous Methyl Mercury to Fathead Minnow Embryos
Shows photo of a normal fathead minnow embryo and one exposed to methyl mercury. Connects mercury poisoning to human health.
Mercury - National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS)
Provides helpful information about mercury, as well as the potential health problems associated with mercury exposure and poisoning.
Don't Mess with Mercury
A user-friendly website from the Agency for Toxic Substances & Disease Registry that contains facts about mercury, how mercury affects your body, the history of mercury, and how to keep your school safe from mercury.
Global Mercury Project: A Global Effort for Less Mercury, More Gold, and Better Health
The Global Mercury Project is an initiative of the United Nations to promote safer and cleaner practices in artisanal mining communities where mercury is used to process gold. This booklet looks at mercury, health and gold mining, as well as global environmental equity.
Interview with Tsuginori Hamamoto, Fisherman, Minamata, Japan
Kids Exposed to Mercury or Lead More Likely to Experience Attention Deficit
New study examining the link to ADHD of children exposed to high levels of mercury or lead while in the womb.
Mercury - EPA
This site from the US Environmental Protection Agency provides a broad range of information about mercury and the effects on people and the environment.
Automobile Workers vs. Johnson Controls
Court case in which automobile workers claimed that Johnson Controls' fetal protection policy discriminates against women.

Managing Lead in Drinking Water at Schools and Early Childhood Education Facilities
Lead is recognized as the single most significant environmental health threat to
America’s children, according to the 1997 National Resources Defense Council study,
Our Children at Risk: The Five Worst Environmental Threats to Their Health. The
toxicity of lead in relatively small doses is associated with learning disabilities, poor
attention spans and lowered IQ scores. This report on managing lead in drinking water at schools and early childhood
education facilities is an important tool for educators and community leaders to limit
children’s exposure to lead. It’s intended to help people learn about the harmful effects
of lead and how to test, detect and reduce waterborne lead levels.
Preventing Childhood Lead Exposure
Children are uniquely vulnerable to harm from exposures to environmental agents where they live, learn, and play. This fact sheet provides key information about lead and children.

WInSTEP Environmental Health Science Program: Fathead Minnows